Introduction

UNICEF has recently stated that the future of humanity is becoming increasingly African (Anthony et al., 2017). This statement underscores the importance of Africa as the world’s fastest-growing region in terms of economic and population growth and its growing geopolitical significance (Jackson, Louw, Zhao, Boojihawon, & Fang, 2020). Africa offers a unique confluence of rich environmental landscapes (such as rainforests, savannas, deserts, and coastal regions) mixed with diverse cultural heritage grappling with the worsening impact of climate change (including deforestation, water scarcity, biodiversity loss, and pollution) and a pressing need for rapid integration into the global economy (Azour & Selassie, 2023). MNEs have profoundly impacted African environmental sustainability by exploiting their natural resources, ranging from resource extraction (Ghauri, Strange, & Cooke, 2021) to greenhouse gas emissions in their operations and supply chains.

Africa’s minimal contribution to global greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for less than 3% of the total (Surie von Czechowski, 2020), contrasts with its disproportionate vulnerability to climate change impacts. Despite low emissions, Africa faces severe climate risks that threaten its population’s development and well-being, including increased extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and sea-level rise affecting coastal areas. These impacts worsen challenges related to food security, water availability, public health, and economic stability. This situation highlights the need for global cooperation in climate change mitigation, particularly in supporting Africa’s most vulnerable regions to build resilience. Africa also has some of the fastest-growing economies, which require sustainable industrial development. This disparity highlights climate justice concerns, as the least responsible suffer the worst impacts.

While the global push for decarbonisation aims to achieve Net Zero (a state in which greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere are balanced by the amount removed), Africa has an opportunity to leapfrog polluting pathways and adopt cleaner solutions. This approach offers the potential for Africa to advance its economies without relying on carbon-intensive methods, positioning the continent as a frontrunner in sustainable development. Nonetheless, the challenge lies in transforming policy aspirations into scalable actions that effectively balance economic growth with environmental sustainability. The Policy-to-Action (P2A) framework outlined here emerges from a thematic synthesis of interdisciplinary literature on climate governance, sustainability transitions, and institutional development. Its components have been refined through meaningful dialogue with policymakers, business leaders, and civil society representatives during the ‘Road to Net Zero Mauritius’ Conference in 2022.

Decarbonising Africa: Challenges and Opportunities

The African story of economic growth is evolving. To promote economic prosperity, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability in Africa, the continent should address promising opportunities alongside significant environmental challenges. This creates new realities (Ghauri, 2022) that are intricate and ever-changing, with considerable societal and environmental impacts for Africa. Tackling these issues demands comprehensive, innovative, and transformative strategies for policymaking and solutions (Bouchene, Jayaram, Kendall, & Somers, 2021). Africa’s upcoming economic development should not replicate the growth patterns of industrialised nations. Instead, it should carve out a path that combines environmental sustainability with economic progress, setting a new benchmark for global development policies. This vision redefines progress and encourages research tailored to Africa’s ecological and socioeconomic realities. Incorporating environmental management and natural capital into Africa’s economic growth plan is essential, ensuring competitiveness through efficient resource management across sustainability agendas.

Africa, rich in natural resources vital for global sustainability, is at a critical point. The continent’s ability to manage these resources depends on its economic resilience and effective policies. Africa can lead in addressing environmental challenges, highlighting its role in global sustainability. Achieving sustainable growth requires balancing competitiveness with local policies on resource and environmental management. This involves leveraging natural and social capital, innovation, and efficiency for growth. Key areas include managing renewable resources, enhancing urban liveability, ensuring climate-resilient development, promoting low-carbon growth, managing mining and energy resources, and fostering investment through transparency and regulations.

There is a crucial need for a paradigm shift in integrating natural environmental considerations into decarbonisation policies while understanding the complex interactions between economic activity and the environment. The Policy-to-Action (P2A) framework proposed in this paper presents a holistic way to address this challenge. It offers a structured roadmap to develop net-zero pathways. This framework advocates relevance, scalability, and inclusivity by embedding the African context at its core. I further expand the key elements of the framework below.

The Policy-to-Action (P2A) Framework

Theoretical Foundations of the P2A Framework

The P2A framework integrates insights from three interlinked strands of literature: climate governance, sustainability transitions, and institutional development, providing a systems-level lens for translating policy into action (Andres, Bryson, Bakare, & Pope, 2022). This integrated approach allows for a comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics involved in implementing climate policies. By considering the interplay between governance structures, technological and societal transitions, and institutional evolution, the P2A framework offers a holistic perspective on policy implementation challenges. It enables policymakers and researchers to identify key leverage points and potential barriers in the process of translating climate goals into tangible actions across various sectors and scales. It also serves as a standalone visual guide that can be used in policy workshops, stakeholder dialogues, or classroom settings to explain the flow from climate ambition to localised action. Each pillar – Policy Alignment, Scalable Action, and Stakeholder Integration – draws its theoretical basis from distinct, but complementary, academic traditions brought together through thematic analysis:

Policy Alignment draws on research in multilevel governance and policy coherence (Nilsson, Griggs, & Visbeck, 2016; Rogge & Reichardt, 2016). The latter highlights the importance of integrated policy mixes that align local, national, and global priorities, and how policy effectiveness improves when national strategies are harmonised with international frameworks like the Paris Agreement. In the African context, Musabyimana et al. (2021) and Holden and Høyer (2024) emphasise the necessity for strategic coherence in national development strategies that align domestic goals with international climate commitments. Such coherence facilitates knowledge sharing and capacity building across different jurisdictions, enabling a more coordinated and impactful response to climate change.

Scalable Action draws on innovation diffusion and adaptive governance literatures. Westley et al. (2014) and Moore et al. (2015) provide frameworks for scaling social innovations in complex systems. In Africa, case studies such as M-KOPA’s solar model (Alstone, Gershenson, & Kammen, 2020) show how distributed innovation can scale in resource-constrained environments through flexible, modular approaches. Their ideas emphasise the importance of building networks, leveraging existing infrastructure, and adapting to local contexts. The M-KOPA case, for instance, illustrates how pay-as-you-go solar systems were able to rapidly scale by tapping into mobile money networks and tailoring products to meet local energy needs. Similar principles could be applied to scale other sustainable innovations across diverse African contexts, though careful consideration of unique cultural and economic factors is necessary to adapt and scale action.

Stakeholder Integration builds on participatory governance and co-production models (Schalatek & Bird, 2020; Stringer et al., 2014). These works emphasise the importance of local ownership, inclusive collaboration, and equity, as well as iterative learning, especially in fragmented institutional settings similar to those found in Africa. This pillar stresses the importance of trust-building and accountability among actors, from ministries to community-based organisations. Effective stakeholder integration involves creating platforms for ongoing dialogue and collaboration across diverse groups. It also requires developing mechanisms for transparent information sharing and joint decision-making processes. By fostering a sense of shared responsibility and mutual benefit, stakeholder integration can improve the legitimacy and sustainability of climate adaptation efforts.

The P2A framework provides a structured and actionable approach to operationalising Africa’s Net Zero pathways. Its components, together, support thinking through high-level climate commitments that are transformed into measurable, inclusive, and sustainable actions (see Figure 1). The framework’s six iterative steps operationalise these pillars through applied tools – scenario planning, stakeholder dialogues, and investment readiness – that have been refined in discussions with policymakers, industry leaders, and community representatives at the ‘Road to Net Zero Mauritius’ conference in 2022, and case examples. The framework is designed for use by policymakers, inter-ministerial teams, national planning authorities, and development practitioners as a policy toolkit. It can also serve as a pedagogical slide and diagnostic tool for academics and educators aiming to bridge climate strategy with grounded implementation in diverse African contexts.

Figure 1
Figure 1.Decarbonising Africa: A Policy-to-Action (P2A) Framework for Developing Net Zero Pathways

Footnote: (1): Holden & Høyer, 2024; Musabyimana et al., 2021; Nilsson et al., 2016; (2) Alstone et al., 2020; Moore et al., 2015; Westley et al., 2014; (3) Schalatek & Bird, 2020; Stringer et al., 2014

Core Principles of the P2A Framework

The African context sits at the centre of the framework, reflecting the need to embed solutions in the specific realities of a given country on the continent. Africa’s decarbonisation strategy should consider addressing the dual imperative of combating climate vulnerabilities and promoting economic growth. By focusing on continuous improvement and flexible implementation, the framework enables adaptation to evolving challenges and opportunities, such as emerging technologies, shifts in global trade policies, and local socio-political dynamics. Each of these three pillars plays a distinct but complementary role.

  • Policy Alignment: helps maintain a unified strategic vision.

  • Scalable Action: translates plans into tangible outcomes.

  • Stakeholder Integration: fosters inclusivity and shared accountability.

Let us explore how they can work together.

Policy Alignment: Aligning National Goals with Net Zero

The Policy Alignment pillar lays the groundwork for decarbonisation by ensuring national, regional, and international strategies are harmonised. This is key to Africa, where fragmented policies and conflicting priorities often progress slowly. The framework outlines three key steps of this pillar:

1. Define Objectives

Countries are encouraged to identify and align strategic priorities by understanding existing commitments such as the Paris Agreement, national development plans, and regional trade initiatives like the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). Rwanda’s Green Growth and Climate Resilience Strategy (GGCRS) sets objectives aligned with international goals, emphasising renewable energy and sustainable urbanisation. Rwanda’s GGCRS demonstrates strong alignment with the P2A Framework’s policy component. This strategy aligns with Rwanda’s national priorities outlined in Vision 2050 and the National Strategy for Transformation (NST 1), ensuring that climate action is integrated into the country’s development agenda. This is key to making it work as Rwanda’s GGCRS calls for $2 billion annually to achieve its climate objectives, with $700 million sourced from public financing. The strategy aims for 60% renewable energy by 2030 while expanding energy access to 75% of households. Key investments include $150 million annually for water management and creating over 20,000 green jobs through reforestation and solar initiatives (AfDB, 2023). Challenges remain in attracting private capital, with only 35% of funding secured, highlighting the need for blended finance models and requiring careful planning in the steps outlined below. Overall, this case exemplifies the Policy Alignment pillar, particularly in aligning national development strategies with global climate goals through cross-ministerial coordination.

2. Data Capture, Baselining, and Target-Setting

Data are the foundation of actionable strategies. Governments should establish baseline metrics for emissions, energy usage, socioeconomic factors, and information systems to support them. Morocco’s Noor Solar Plant was supported by emission baselines that shaped its renewable energy targets. As part of the country’s renewable energy strategy, the Noor Solar Plant aims to develop a capacity of 2,000 MW by 2020, ensuring power supplies for the population and economy. The Noor Ouarzazate Concentrated Solar Power Complex consists of multiple plants and has operated since October 2018. Between April 2021 and March 2022, it generated 1,093 GWh. This output supports Morocco’s goal of increasing renewable energy generation to 52% by 2030 (AfDB, 2016).

3. Policy Plans, Regulation, and Guidance

Decarbonisation policies should be translated into enforceable regulations. This includes developing clear sectoral science-based targets, creating incentives for green investment, and aligning regulations with African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) standards. Consistency across policies reduces investor uncertainty and accelerates progress towards the green transition. Decarbonisation policies are encouraged to enact mechanisms and measures to be translated into enforceable regulations to drive meaningful change.

Scalable Action: How to Move from Policy to Practice

The Scalable Action pillar bridges the gap between policy and tangible outcomes. Recognising Africa’s diversity, this pillar emphasises flexibility and context-sensitive approaches. This comprises three key steps.

1. Pathway Scenario Review

Governments and businesses should explore decarbonisation scenarios using multidisciplinary approaches and scenario building. A key example is South Africa’s Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP), which assessed renewable energy scenarios to identify cost-effective pathways. This initiative has attracted over $25 billion in investment. Launched in 2011, the REIPPPP is a competitive tender to promote private investment in grid-connected renewable energy generation. By 2020, the program procured 6,422 MW of renewable energy capacity across wind, solar photovoltaic (PV), and small hydro projects (Eberhard & Naude, 2016).

2. Finance and Resource Assessments.

Securing financing is key to its implementation. Stakeholders should assess funding availability, evaluate financial mechanisms, and explore innovative financing options such as green bonds or blended finance. M-KOPA Solar’s ability to attract over $200 million in investment showcases the importance of tailoring financing models to project needs. Securing financing is essential for implementing decarbonisation initiatives, especially in Africa, where access to capital is often limited. Stakeholders - governments, private investors, and international donors- should evaluate funding availability and mechanisms to align resources with project needs. M-KOPA’s financial strategies have worked well. M-KOPA Solar has distributed over 1 million solar kits in East Africa, bringing electricity to more than 500,000 households and offsetting 2.1 million tonnes of CO₂. The company’s pay-as-you-go model maintains a 95% repayment rate, with $250 million in financing from investors and banks. With 40% of its customers being women and 5,000 trained local technicians, M-KOPA demonstrates decentralised energy’s social equity potential (M-KOPA, 2023). These metrics show how innovative financing can bridge energy access gaps while promoting change. In particular, this case illustrates Scalable Action through modular, enterprise-led innovation that enables climate solutions to be adapted and expanded in resource-constrained settings.

3. Strategy Development, Route Mapping, and Action Planning

Action plans should include clear timelines, milestones, and implementation roadmaps to break long-term goals into manageable short-term actions. The Great Green Wall (GGW) Initiative exemplifies effective decarbonisation through phased reforestation plans to restore 100 million hectares by 2030. The GGW has restored 18 million hectares across 11 Sahel nations, creating 350,000 jobs in sustainable agriculture and forestry. With $19 billion pledged, the initiative’s third phase (2024–2027) targets 8 million additional hectares, focusing on Ethiopia’s “green legacy” and Niger’s farmer-managed regeneration. In Niger, 2 million people have benefited from restored land, leading to 20–30% increased crop yields (UNCCD, 2024). These outcomes demonstrate the GGW’s impact on climate and poverty, though funding distribution remains uneven among states. This initiative demonstrates the importance of Stakeholder Integration, with its polycentric governance model and community-led implementation offering a model for collaborative, locally embedded resilience-building.

Stakeholder Integration: Building Inclusive Climate Partnerships

Achieving Net Zero requires diverse stakeholders; the Stakeholder Integration pillar encourages partnerships and creates shared ownership in decarbonisation efforts. Its approach includes:

  • Community engagement helps ensure solutions are locally relevant and accepted.

  • Collaboration between large corporations (MNEs) and local businesses (SMEs) is essential for knowledge transfer and capacity building.

  • Stakeholder engagement should include accountability structures and processes to support participants in fulfilling commitments. Transparent reporting and feedback loops help maintain alignment, dialogue and drive improvements.

A key feature of the P2A Framework is its emphasis on continuous improvements, which helps ensure that decarbonisation efforts remain relevant and resilient to uncertainty.

Practice-Oriented Applications of the P2A Framework

Overall, the P2A Framework offers strategic entry points for government actors aiming to accelerate and coordinate climate action. Firstly, aligning national policies with AfCFTA’s climate objectives, for instance, can benefit from ministerial coordination and dialogue to embed sustainability into sectoral strategies. Regular interagency collaboration, policy reviews, and planning mechanisms can enhance coherence and eliminate contradictions. Secondly, investing in national data systems is crucial for improving emissions tracking and facilitating evidence-based decision-making. Pilot initiatives should be crafted with local ownership and scalability in mind, ensuring relevance and community engagement. Blended financing models and public-private partnerships can unlock essential capital while multi-stakeholder platforms – engaging civil society, academia, and business – promote collective intelligence and innovation. These measures and mechanisms support coherent implementation pathways that strengthen the capacity to achieve national and regional Net Zero goals.

Thus, the P2A Framework also provides value across three strategic areas: for policymakers, it offers a diagnostic tool to map current decarbonisation efforts, detect policy misalignments or miscommunications, and guide national planning. It can be incorporated into cross-ministerial reviews or used to develop country-level implementation plans for Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). For business and development actors, the framework provides a tool to assess investment readiness, stakeholder review and alignment, and scenario risks, especially useful for public-private partnerships or sustainable infrastructure projects. It supports policy labs, multi-actor dialogue, and action research aimed at delivering local, scalable Net Zero solutions. For educators, it can facilitate experiential learning modules that connect theory to practice. For instance, MBA students can simulate policy pathways using Rwanda’s GGCRS or evaluate financing models like M-KOPA. It also allows for critical inquiry into institutional logics, gaps, and adaptation under conditions of climate uncertainty. Each case example in this paper is selected to reflect and ground the core pillars and iterative steps of the P2A Framework. For researchers, it aids in analysing governance, financing, and gaps in policy implementation.

Conclusion: Challenges and Limitations

The P2A Framework offers a structured approach, but implementation faces several challenges. Institutional weaknesses, including limited enforcement and fragmented governance, can hinder accountability. Financial constraints and overreliance on international funding can threaten sustainability. Political instability risks policy coherence through leadership changes. Data scarcity, particularly in areas with poor monitoring infrastructure, impedes risk assessments. Aligning stakeholder interests across varying climate literacy levels remains challenging. Solutions require political leadership, flexible governance, and investments in data systems and mechanisms to enable inclusive dialogue platforms.

Africa’s climate and development goals are deeply interconnected. The P2A Framework provides policymakers with a clear roadmap towards Africa’s Net Zero future, harmonising local priorities with global objectives for a resilient, low-carbon continent. It serves as a practical starting point for countries navigating the complexities of Net Zero transitions. With its adaptable tools, context-specific guidance, and stakeholder-driven design, the framework holds significant potential as a guide for equitable and sustainable climate policy across diverse African contexts. We encourage its continued testing, refinement, and application in education, research, and real-world policy settings.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to thank the University of Technology Mauritius for hosting and supporting the ‘Road to Net Zero Mauritius’ Conference in December 2022.

About the Authors

Dev K. (Roshan) Boojihawon is Associate Professor of Strategy and International Business at Birmingham Business School, University of Birmingham. His research explores sustainability, resilience, and Net Zero transitions in Africa and UK SMEs, with a focus on Scope 3 emissions, exploring strategy, policy and governance issues. An award-winning educator, he has published in leading journals and co-edited volumes including Organisational Collaboration and China in Africa. He serves on the Editorial Review Board of the Asia-Pacific Journal of Management.